Gender
Development:
Social Theories
Prepared by Ethel Cantu
Based on Gender:
Psychological Perspectives, 3rd Ed
Linda Brannon, Allyn & Bacon 2002
Social
Learning Theory
l Emphasizes nurture
Contribution
of the social environment to learning gender-related behaviors
l Based on operant
conditioning
Reinforcement
increases gender appropriate behaviors
Punishment
decreases gender inappropriate behaviors
l Sees development as
continuous
Social
Learning Theory
l Adds observational learning
Children
use cognitive processes to choose appropriate gender-related behaviors
Observe
wide variety of models: real & images
Imitate
behaviors of those they choose
l Power & prestige
l Similarity: more likely to imitate same-sex
models
Social
Learning Theory
l Consequences of observed
behavior
Imitation
more likely if observed behavior is rewarded
l Differential treatment by
adults, esp parents encourages gender appropriate and discourages gender
inappropriate behaviors
Children
develop gender knowledge & gender standards for own behavior
Social
Learning Theory
l Learning through observation
is cognitive
l Performing is behavioral
l Whether behavior is
performed depends on observed consequences & beliefs about gender
appropriateness
l Critique is that children
are portrayed as too passive
Cognitive
Developmental Theory
l Children use active
cognitive processes to acquire gender-related behaviors
l Based on Piagets stages of
cognitive development
Preoperational (2-4 yrs)
l Transition (5-7 yrs)
Concrete
operational (7-12 yrs)
Formal
operational (12- adult)
Cognitive
Developmental Theory
l Preoperational (2-4 yrs)
Thinking
is concrete, not logical, judges on appearance
l Gender labeling
Knows there are two sexes
Applies labels to self &
others, but inconsistent
Uses cues such as dress,
hair
Can change sex if appearance
is different
Cognitive
Developmental Theory
l Preoperational (transition
5-7 yrs)
Develop
categories associated with sex/gender
Value
and imitate same sex behaviors more
Rigid
interpretations of gender behaviors
Cognitive
Developmental Theory
l Preoperational (transition
5-7 yrs)
Develop
gender identity
l Identify themselves as male or female
l Strive to be consistent with this identity
l Develop gender categories
l Use stereotypes as rules
Cognitive
Developmental Theory
l Concrete operational (7-12
yrs)
Thinking
is logical, but limited to concrete
Belief
in gender constancy (permanent)
l Cognitive understanding of permanence of
gender
l Leads to development of gender appropriate
attributes
l Less rigid in application of stereotypes
Cognitive
Developmental Theory
l Formal Operational (12
adult)
Thinking
is scientifically logical, can be applied to abstract concepts
Adolescents
become more rigid in sex-typing
Cognitive
developmental theory cant account for this
Cognitive
Developmental Theory
l Critique
Emphasizes
gender constancy as primary force
Research
has not confirmed this
Treats
gender as any other cognitive category
l Fails to explain why sex is more important
category than others, such as race, religion, eye color
Gender
Schema Theory
l Children develop schema for
gender
Cognitive
structures that organize & guide perception
l Gender-related behaviors are
result of:
General
cognitive development &
Adoption
of gender schemata
Gender
Schema Theory
l Children develop schemata of
masculinity & femininity in their culture
l Schemata guide their
cognitions
Influence
information processing
Influence
problem solving
Influence
memory
Regulate
personal behavior
l Schemata used to develop
self-concept
Gender
Schema Theory
l Process is more important
than content
Gender-schematic
children behave in more gender-typical ways than gender-aschematic
Gender-consistent
information is better remembered than gender-inconsistent
Memories
are changed to be consistent with gender schemata
Gender
Schema Theory
l Leads to gender stereotyping
Easier
to classify behavior, people, objects
l More
manageable & predictable
More
prone to errors
l Inaccurate
perceptions
l Failure
to accept information that doesnt fit stereotype
Gender
Schema Theory
l To raise gender-aschematic
children
Eliminate
gender-related messages
l Occupations,
household chores, colors, activities
Teach
about biased messages re: gender
Emphasize
biological rather than social dimensions of sex
Substitute
individual differences schema for gender-related differences schema
Gender
Script Theory
l Extension of gender schema
theory
l Childrens gender knowledge
is organized in sequential form
Information
processing & memory more accurate with own-gender rather than other-gender
sequences
l Building
with tools, preparing dinner
Developing
Gender Identity
l Childhood
To 18 mos, mistakes in gender labeling
2-3 yrs, accurate in
gender labeling
3-6 yrs, add gender
stereotype knowledge & gender preferences followed by gender constancy
(stability & consistency)
l Differences between girls
& boys reflect socialization
Boys receive harsher,
more rigid training
Developing
Gender Identity
l Adolescence
Stricter
in application of gender stereotypes in early adolescence
More
flexible in late adolescence
More
tolerance & flexibility for self than for others
Perceive
other gender in stereotypical ways
Family
& peers influence flexibility
Developing
Gender Identity
l Adulthood
Gender
flexibility increases with age
Increased
willingness to make exceptions, esp for self
Gender
Identity Disorder
l Child rejects gender role
that corresponds to biological sex; adopts cross-gender behaviors &
identity
Experienced by more boys
than girls
l Gender dysphoria: unhappy
& dissatisfied with ones gender
Some seek sexual
reassignment surgery: transsexuals
Not to be confused with
homosexuality & transvestism
Do not usually have
other mental problems
l Is gender identity disorder a psychological
disorder?